https://www.youtube.com/snO68aJTOpM

• Wrap-up on functional methods
• Gross neuroanatomy

• Pharmacological
• Electrical (Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation - tDCS)
• Magnetic (Transcranial magnetic stimulation - TMS)

• Spatial/temporal resolution?
• Assume stimulation mimics natural activity?

• Depression
• Epilepsy
• Parkinson’s Disease

https://youtu.be/KDjWdtDyz5I

• Gene splicing techniques insert light-sensitive molecules into neuronal membranes
• Application of light at specific wavelengths alters neuronal function
• Cell-type specific and temporally precise control

https://youtu.be/FlGbznBmx8M

• Computer/mathematical models of brain function
• Example: neural networks
• Cheap, noninvasive, can be stimulated or “lesioned”

• Multiple structural, functional methods
• Different levels of spatial & temporal analysis
• Functional tools have different strengths & weaknesses

Anterior/Posterior

Medial/Lateral

Superior/Inferior

Dorsal/Ventral

Rostral/Caudal

Horizontal/Axial

Coronal/Transverse/Frontal

Sagittal (from the side)

Meninges

Ventricular system

Blood supply

Dura mater ('tough mother')

Arachnoid membrane

Subarachnoid space

Pia mater ('gentle mother')

Lateral (1st & 2nd)

3rd

Cerebral aqueduct

4th

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

• Clears metabolites during sleep (Xie et al., 2013).

Arteries

• Circle of Willis

Blood/brain barrier

• Cells forming blood vessel walls tightly packed
• Active transport of molecules typically required

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain
• Spinal Cord
• Everything encased in bone

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Structures adjacent to 4th ventricle
  • Medulla oblongata
  • Cerebellum
  • Pons

• Cardiovascular regulation
• Muscle tone
• Fibers of passage
  • Ascending fibers (from body), a.k.a. afferents
  • Descending fibers (exiting brain), a.k.a., efferents

• “Little brain”
• Dorsal to pons
• Movement coordination, simple learning

• Bulge on brain stem
• Neuromodulatory nuclei
• Relay to cerebellum

Tectum

Tegmentum

• "Roof" of the midbrain
• Superior and inferior colliculus
• Reflexive orienting of eyes, head, ears

• "Floor" of the midbrain
• Species-typical movement sequences
• Neuromodulatory nuclei
  • Norepinephrine (NE)
  • Serotonin (5-HT)
  • Dopamine (DA) – from ventral tegmental area (VTA)

Diencephalon

Telencephalon

• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus

• Input to cortex
• Functionally distinct nuclei (collection of neurons)
  • Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), vision
  • Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN), audition
  • Pulvinar, attention?

• Five Fs: fighting, fleeing/freezing, feeding, and reproduction
• Controls pituitary gland (“master” gland)
  • Anterior pituitary (indirect release of hormones)
    • e.g., Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH) -> release of cortisol from Adrenal Cortex
  • Posterior pituitary (direct release of hormones)
    • Oxytocin
    • Vasopressin (aka, Arginine Vasopressin – AVP; Anti-diuretic Hormone – ADH)

• Basal ganglia
• Hippocampus, amygdala
• Cerebral cortex

• Skill and habit learning
• Linked to Tourette syndrome, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), addiction, movement disorders
• Example: Parkinson's Disease

• Striatum
  • Caudate nucleus
  • Putamen
• Globus pallidus
• Subthalamic nucleus
• Substantia nigra (tegmentum)

• Immediately lateral to lateral ventricles
• Memories of specific facts or events
• Fornix projects to hypothalamus
• Mammillary bodies

• Physiological state, behavioral readiness, affect
• NOT the fear center! (LeDoux, 2015).

• Gilmore's cautionary notes
• The cerebral cortex
• The peripheral nervous system